According to Proudhon, before Kant, the believer and the philosopher moved “by an irresistible impulse,” asked themselves, “What is God!” They then asked themselves “Which, of all religions, is the best!” “In fact, if there does exist a Being superior to Humanity, there must also exist a system of the relations between this Being and Humanity. What then is this system! The search for the best religion is the second step that the human mind takes in reason and in faith. (...) Kant gave up these insolvable questions. He no longer asked himself what is God, and which is the best religion; he set about explaining the origin and development of the Idea of God; he undertook to work out the biography of this idea.” And the results he attained were as great as they were unexpected. “What we seek, what we see, in God, as Malebranche said ... is our own Ideal, the pure essence of Humanity ... The human soul does not become conscious of its Ego through premeditated contemplation, as the psychologists put it; the soul perceives something outside itself, as if it were a different Being face to face with itself, and it is this inverted image which it calls God. Thus morality, justice, order, law, are no longer things revealed from above, imposed upon our free will by a socalled Creator, unknown and ununderstandable; they are things that are proper and essential to us as our faculties and our organs, as our flesh and our blood. In two words religion and society are synonymous terms, man is as sacred to himself as if he were God.”. (shrink)

ch. 1. Dosokratiki, Sokrat, Platon, Aristotelʹ -- v. 2. Likeĭ, ėpikup, stoi͡a, Pirron, akademii͡a, neopifagoreizm, Plotin i neoplatonizm.

The time that has elapsed since the Twenty-sixth Congress of the CPSU has confirmed the accuracy and profundity of the congress's analysis of the principal processes taking place in the development of humankind today. This analysis is very relevant for an understanding of the dialectics of war, peace, and social progress in our epoch. The congress emphasized that the struggle to reduce the threat of world war and to curb the arms race has been, and continues to be, the central (...) direction in the foreign political activity of the CPSU and the Soviet State. "In defending peace," L. I. Brezhnev stated in the Report of the Central Committee of the CPSU, "we are working not just for people living today, and not just for our children and grandchildren: we are working for the happiness of countless future generations.". (shrink)

This book attempts, through a series of interpretive discussions, to confront a number of well-known perplexities in their structural form of disjunctive moments, of interpretive contexts of 'this is' and 'this is not.'.

The author contends that living is a process of interpretation and thinking is a dialogue between experience and reflecting.

In the writings of Soviet philosophers and biologists, both individual and team-written, one finds interesting thoughts on contradictions in animate nature and on the diversity and specifics thereof. It must be stated, however, that biotic contradictions have been studied considerably less than social ones. We are still at the beginning of the road to the solution of this problem. One of the reasons for this is the profoundly erroneous notion that study of contradictions in nature, animate and inanimate, inevitably resolves (...) to adducing illustrations of the operation therein of the universal law of the unity and struggle of opposites. However, research on the objective dialectics of nature, particularly the contradictions inherent in it, signifies not mere adducing of examples illustrating the universal laws of dialectics, but knowledge of the specific ways in which they manifest themselves, particularly of those diverse and contradictory connections and relationships of which life is woven. (shrink)

Objective The aim of this study was to examine the development of the implementation of patient rights and the practical course of patient rights legislation in Edirne, as well as the verbal and written applications to relevant departments between 2004 and 2008. Methods The present study was a descriptive, retrospective and cross-sectional study. The data of the study were obtained by retrospectively reviewing records of written complaints to patient rights units and on-site solutions between 2004, the year of establishment of (...) these units, and 2008. Results The incidence of written and verbal complaints were calculated to be 23.1 in 100 000 and 137.9 in 100 000, respectively. The increase was 102.2% for on-site solutions, whereas it was calculated as 97.8% for written applications. It was noticed that the rate of violation judgements was high (42.5% (17/40)) in the first year the Edirne State Hospital patient rights committee was established. Conclusions Possible problems encountered during the presentation of health services can be solved by the implementation of patient rights under the legislative guarantee. The implementation of patient rights should be considered as reflections of a socialised government on health services. (shrink)

A connection between two fundamental concepts of information and symmetry breaking (SB) is established. A concept called transform information (TI) is introduced. The known information measures (Hartley, von Neumann-Shannon-Wiener, Fisher informations, Renyi entropies) can be derived as (or mathematically expressed by) the particular forms of TI for certain transforms of a physical systems (when they are described by the probability measures). As TI is zero when the system is invariant under respective transform, it can be considered, when nonzero, as a (...) quantitative SB measure in the system under study. The classical information measures that are derived from TI also can be perceived as SB measures. This fact is a base for assigning a sense to information. The concept of TI is extended to the cases when systems are described without the use of probability concept. (shrink)

ABSTRACT Largely as a result of public outcry, legislation has recently been passed in the UK prohibiting the sale of bodily parts. This topic was the focus of a recent article in Journal of Applied Philosophy by Ruth Chadwick, which acknowledged that difficulties might exist in trying to distinguish between the selling of one's bodily organs and the selling of one's labour. The position argued for, in the ensuing discussion, is that there is no relevant moral difference between the two (...) acts. Furthermore it contests the view that the sale of bodily organs should necessarily be prohibited. The assertion is made that the legislation does little to prevent the general exploitation of the type of person likely to be involved in such transactions, places unnecessary restrictions on the autonomy of individuals, and does nothing to promote an enhanced moral attitude by health professionals. (shrink)

Автор бросает вызов с одной стороны как материалистической, так и идеалистической философии прошлого и настоящего, с другой - канонической космологической теории Большого взрыва, основанной на принципах механицизма, присущего естествознанию наших дней.

In this study of advertisements appearing in medical periodicals and by direct mail advertising to general practitioners, Dr. Stimson, a sociologist, concludes that from what is intended to provide therapeutic information hardly any therapeutic information is provided. He reminds the reader of the safeguards which surround all drug advertising by law and by the code of practice of the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry but these safeguards do not appear to control real or potential sins of omission. Frequently in (...) these advertisements the literature relating to the drug is quoted but Dr. Stimson found that it was difficult to trace all the papers quoted in different types of medical library. (Some references quoted were to unpublished papers but surely the blame should be shared in this situation?) Dr. Stimson also gives a vivid and fascinating glimpse of what he calls the 'images and stereotypes' of the patients who, it is claimed, would benefit from the drug being advertised. Certainly most general practitioners must be aware that when they prescribe that image is displaced by an individual but the portrait gallery is indeed depressing. However, to balance these advertisements drug companies issue data sheets which must be more informative than advertisements and conform to regulations in their format. Unfortunately data sheets are only issued every 15 months whereas the 'average general practitioner is potentially exposed to 1,300 advertisements every month'. In other words, the data sheet and not the advertisement should be the guideline but it arrives too infrequently to offset the lack of therapeutic information contained in advertisements. (shrink)